Later Vedic

 LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000-600 B.C.)

Region

 In a legend of Satapatha Brahmana, the expansion of people towards the east indicates how Videha Madhava migrated from the Saraswati region, crossed Sadanira and came to the Land of Videha (modern Tirhut).

As per Aryavarta, during the Later Vedic Period, the Aryan settlements covered virtually the whole of Northern India. The centre of culture now shifted from Saraswati to Ganges (Madhya Desa). Reference to the territorial divisions, the later Vedas gives three broad divisions of India, viz.(1) Aryavarta (Northern India), (ii) Madhya Desa (Central India) and (iii) Dakhinapath (Southern India).

In the beginning, they cleared the land by burning; later with the use of iron tools which became common

Political Organisation

The term rashtra indicating territory first appeared in this period. Emergence of Janapadas Kuru (Combination of Purus and Bharatas). Panchala (Combination of Truvashasand Krivis). Kashietc. in the Doab region.

 Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms. Powers of the king, who was called Samrat increased. The importance of assemblies declined. Women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies.

Society

The four fold division of society became clear which were initially based on occupation, later became hereditary : Brahmins (priests),hi Kshatriyas (Warriors), Vaishyas bri (agriculturists, cattle-rearers, traders) and Shudras (servers of the upper three). The institution of Gotra (the clan) appeared in later Vedic Period.

 The earliest reference to the four Ashramas (the stages of life) Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanprasthaand Sanyasa-is found in the Jabala Upanishad. The Ashrama system was formed to attain four Purusharthas(Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha).

The Status of women declined. According to Aitareya Brahamana, a daughter is the sources of misery but a son is the protector of family.

Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialogue (Vrihadarnyaka Upanishada) indicates that some women had got higher education.

According to Maitrayani Samhita, there are three evils- (i) liquor, (ii) woman and (iii) dice.

➤ 16 Samskaras :

1. Barbhadhana;

2. Pumsavana;

3. Simantonnayan;

4. Jatakarma;

5. Namakaran

6. Nishkramana;

7. Annaprashana;

8. Chudakarma;

9. Karnachhedana;

10. Vidyarmbha;

11. Upanayana;

12. Vedarambha

13. Samavaratana;

14: Vivaha;

15. Vanprastha;

16. Antyesti;

Religion 

Rituals and formulae became prominent in the cult of sacrifice.

Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati (creator of the universe, later known as Brahma); Vishnu (Patron god of Aryans) and Rudra (God of animals, later known as Shiva/Mahesha), Prajapati became the supreme God.

 Pushan, responsible for well being of the cattle, became the god of the Shudras.

In the later Vedas and Brahmanas sacrifices (Yajnas) came into prominence. There were two varieties of sacrifices-

1. Laghuyajnas (Simple/Private Sacrifices): Performed by householder. For example: Pancha Mahayajna, Agnihotra, Darsha Yajna (on Amavasya), Purnamasa Yajna (on Purnima) etc.

2. Mahayajnas (Grand/Royal Sacrifices): Sacrifices that could only be undertaken by an aristocratic and wealthy man and the king.

(a) Asvamedha Yajna: Horse sacrifice, which lasted for three days.

(b) Agnishtoma Yajna: Sacrifice of animals dedicated to Agni, which lasted one day, although Yajnika (performer of Yajna) and his wife spent ascetic life for a year before Yajna. On the occasion of this Yajna, soma rasa was consumed.

(c) Rajasuya Yajna: Royal consecration, which in its full form comprised a series of sacrifices lasting over a year. In the later days, it was replaced by simplified Abhisheka, i.e., anointment.

(d) Vajapeya Yajna: Drink of strength, which lasted for a period of seventeen days upto full one year.

Economy

Land had now become more valuable than cows. Agriculture began to replace rearing of cattle. The plough was at times drawn by 24 oxen. Manure was known. Rice, barley, beans, sesame and wheat were cultivated.

Evidence was there regarding organisation of merchants into guilds because of reference to corporations (Ganas) and aldermen (Sreshtins).

Considerable advancement was made in the knowledge of metals. Mention of tin, silver and iron was made apart from gold and ayas (either copper or iron) in the Rig Veda.